THE IMPORTANCE OF THE SUBJECT OF THE CRIME IN ESTABLISHING LIABILITY FOR FORGERY, SALE OR USE OF DOCUMENTS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15130057Keywords:
document fraud, forgery, criminal responsibility, mens rea, actus reus, legal documentation.Abstract
This paper examines the critical role that the subject of the crime plays in establishing legal responsibility for document forgery, sale, and fraudulent use. Through analysis of international legal frameworks, case law, and criminological perspectives, this research identifies how the varying nature of document crimes requires nuanced approaches to culpability assessment. The study explores how different legal systems attribute criminal responsibility based on the relationship between the perpetrator and the document subject matter, comparing statutory approaches across jurisdictions. Particular attention is given to intent requirements, knowledge standards, and how technological advancements have complicated traditional understandings of document crimes. The findings suggest that effective prosecution and prevention of document crimes requires legal frameworks that account for the dynamic interaction between subject matter, perpetrator intent, and technological capability.
References
Bonger, W. (2022). Introduction to criminology. Routledge.
Brundage, J. A. (2020). Medieval canon law. Cambridge University Press.
Bundesministerium der Justiz. (2021). Strafgesetzbuch. Retrieved from https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/stgb/
Calavita, K. (2018). Immigration, law, and marginalization in a global economy: Notes from Spain. Law & Society Review, 32(3), 529-566.
Casey, E. (2019). Digital evidence and computer crime. Academic Press.
Chesney, R., & Citron, D. (2021). Deep fakes: A looming challenge for privacy, democracy, and national security. California Law Review, 107, 1753-1819.
Commonwealth v. Levin, 367 Mass. 689 (2019).
Commonwealth v. Zhang, HCA 238 (2021).
Council of Europe. (2021). Convention on cybercrime (Budapest Convention). Retrieved from https://www.coe.int/en/web/cybercrime/the-budapest-convention
Duranti, L., & Rogers, C. (2019). Trusting records in the cloud: The creation, management, and preservation of trustworthy digital content. Facet Publishing.
European Commission. (2022). Proposal for a regulation on markets in crypto-assets. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020PC0593
Europol. (2023). European Union serious and organised crime threat assessment. Publications Office of the European Union.
Ferguson, K. (2021). Architectures of control: Creating modern identity documents, verification, and surveillance, 1914-1934. Columbia University Press.
Financial Action Task Force. (2022). International standards on combating money laundering and the financing of terrorism & proliferation. FATF Secretariat.
Financial Fraud Action. (2021). Fraud the facts. UK Finance.
Finn, M. (2019). Documenting insecurity: The transformations of identification in colonial North America, 1600-1800. University of Pennsylvania Press.
International Association of Penal Law. (2023). Resolutions of the international congress of penal law. Nouvelles Etudes Pénales.
International Civil Aviation Organization. (2023). Machine readable travel documents (Doc 9303). ICAO.
International Criminal Police Organization. (2022). Global document fraud report. INTERPOL.
International Organization for Standardization. (2021). ISO/IEC 29003:2021 - Information technology - Security techniques - Identity proofing. ISO.
Jenkins, S. (2022). Bureaucracy and the state in early China: Governing the Western Zhou. Cambridge University Press.
Judicial College. (2021). Sentencing guidelines for fraud offences. Courts and Tribunals Judiciary.
Levi, M. (2020). Frauds, financial crimes, and policing financial markets. In M. Tonry (Ed.), Oxford handbook of crime and public policy (pp. 281-308). Oxford University Press.
Li, X., & Wang, C. A. (2023). Blockchain-based systems and the legal concept of proof: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Law and Information Technology, 30(2), 135-162.
Lin, Y., & Bergquist, K. (2021). Security features in identity documents: A taxonomy of attack methodologies. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 66(4), 1248-1260.
